Deconstruction

“Theory” and “graphic design” have always been a problematic union. Perhaps because graphic design is often approached more intuitively than intellectually, theory is rarely an explicit part of design practice. When theory does emerge as a topic among designers, it often serves to name a new style, a current stock of mannerisms. A conspicuous example of this surfacing of theory is the circulation of “deconstruction” with the graphic design community.

The term “deconstruction” was coined by the philosopher Jacques Derrida in his book Of Grammatology, published in France in 1967 and translated into English in 1976. Deconstruction became a banner for advanced thought in American literary studies, scandalizing departments of English and French across the country.

A work of design can be called “deconstruction” when it exposes and transforms the established rules of writing, interrupting the sacred “inside” of content with the profane “outside” of form. Modernist typography has long engaged in such structural games from the calligrammes of Apollinaire, to the experiments with simultaneous overlapping texts produced within the “New Typography” of the 1970s and ‘80s. Such self-conscious explorations of language and design within the context of Modernism are matched by numerous developments within the “vernacular” field of commercial publishing, which since the nineteenth century has expanded the limits of classical book typography to meet the needs of advertising and popular media. The early nineteenth-century display face called Italian deliberately inverted the anatomical part so the “modern” letterforms that had been formalized in the late eighteenth century. The neoclassical fonts of Didot and Bodoni epitomized the tendency to view typography as a system of abstract relationships – thick and think, serif and stem, vertical and horizontal. The designer of Italian turned the serfs inside out, demonstrating that the forms of letters are not bound by the authority of divine proportions, but are open to endless manipulation.

Within the context of philosophy and literary theory, deconstruction is just one question among many that emerged out of the body of critical ideas known as post-structuralism. Barthes’ theory of “mythology” looks at how images validate key beliefs in modern culture – such as “progress” or “individualism” – making ideologically loaded concepts seem like natural and inevitable truths.

Post-Modernism and New Wave Typography

• Grand narrative - A "myth" or faith-based statement that encompasses how we got here, why we are here and how we should live. "Storytelling in the interest of the powerful." - Drucher
• Post-Modernism was marked by a rejection of totalizing, essentialist, and foundationalist concepts. "Reality" was fragmented, diverse, tenuous and culture-specific, more so than structuralism did.
  
• Myths legitimize themselves by weaving beliefs together that defines culture.
• Postmodernism examines various cultural codes that govern our understanding of ourselves, our place; and all our procedures that are socially, culturally or politically motivated.
• A confluence of external forces created a cacophony of new images and lifestyles being represented and depicted within graphic design.
• Communities of option and belief readers identified with each other through style — graphic, music, fashion; a new pluralism emerged from the "ME" generation.
• Graphic novels and edgy adult literature formed a sort of hybrid -- interest in artist books and menageries of alternative publications to shock while disregarding standards of decency.
• There seemed to be two factions of designers, during this period, especially in the times of Milton Glaser with Push Pin Studios in the 1960s. New designers could turn their back on stale, corporate design — and since it was corporations that were supporting the Vietnam war, these designers believed that corporate design was fascism.
  
• Postmodernism was not a style, but a group of approaches motivated by some common understandings, not all of which will necessarily be shared by ever practitioner. It wasn't a theory, but a set of theoretical positions, which have at their core a self-reflexive awareness of the tentativeness, the slipperiness, the ambiguity, and complex interrelations of culture and meaning.
• Rejections of the International style began in Basel through the teaching of Wolfgang Weingart. Young designers seemed to be pardoying their modern teachers. Weigart rejected the right angle -- he believe in intuitive design and the richness of visual effect.
• New Wave Typography — Weingart advocated complete freedom and richness, using different arrangements for type; something textured and more fragmented than some of his Swiss counterparts. The inventory of this New Wave thinking included wide letter spacing, bold stair-stepped rules, rule lines punctuating space, diagonal type, mixing typefaces or weight changes within words, and type reversed from a series of bars.
• Willi Kuntz — Controlled quality; rectangular Swiss-inspired images were boring and would no longer suffice in corporate design. Everything was more architectonic, relating the shape of the text boxes and creating a more visually dynamic composition.
• SEGD - Typographic strategies close to architecture. It was a very short step from New Wave Typography and into space — it was something to experience, not just to look at.
• April Grieman, Rosmarie Tissi, and Siegfried Odermatt each have their own contribution to Postmodernism.
  

Discourse: Ellen Lupton's Deconstructivist Theory

Key concepts from Ellen Lupton's A Post-Mortem on Deconstruction?

• Deconstruction is part of a broader field of criticism known as “post-structuralism,” whose theorist have included Jacques Derrida, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, among others. Each of these writers has looked at modes of representation – from alphabetic writing to photojournalism – as culturally powerful technologies that transform and construct “reality”.
• The phrase “deconstruction” quickly became a cliché in design journalism, where it usually has described a style featuring fragmented shapes, extreme angles, and aggressively asymmetrical arrangements. This collection of formal devices was easily transferred from architecture to graphic design, where it named existing tendencies and catalyzed new ones. The labels “deconstructivism,” “deconstructionism,” and just plain “decon” have served to blanket the differences between a broad range of design practices and an equally broad range of theoretical ideas.
• Rather than viewing it as a style, you can view deconstructivism as a process – an act of questioning. In Derrida’s original theory, deconstruction asks a question: how does representation inhabit reality? How does the external appearance of a thing get inside its internal essence? How does the surface get under the skin? For example, the Western tradition has tended to value the internal mind as the sacred source of soul and intellect, while denouncing the body as an earthly, mechanical shell. Countering this view is the understanding that the conditions of bodily experience temper the way we think and act. A parallel question for graphic design is this: how does visual from get inside the “content” of writing? How has typography refused to be a passive, transparent vessel for written texts, developing as a system with its own structures and devices?
• The Western philosophical tradition has denigrated writing as an inferior, dead copy of the living, spoken word, when we speak, we draw on our inner consciousness, but when we write, our words are inert and abstract. The written word loses its connection to our inner selves. Language is set adrift.
• It has recently become unfashionable to compare language and design. In the fields of architecture and products, the paradigm of language is losing its luster as a theoretical model – we no longer think of buildings, tea pots, for fax machines as “communication” cultural messages, in the manner of post-Modern classicism or product semantics.
• For the design fields, “deconstruction” has been reduced to the name of a historical period rather than an ongoing way of approaching design. Derrida made a similar point in 1994, saying that deconstruction will never be over, because it describes a way of thinking about language that has always existed. For graphic design, deconstruction isn’t dead, either, because it’s not a style or movement, but a way of asking questions through our work. Critical form-making will always be part of design practice, whatever theoretical tools one might use to identify it.

Apollinaire’s Il Pleut is a perfect example of the juxtaposition of language and design – of typography and content. Like the other structural games calligrammes are often referred to, Il Pleut uses typography as an active picture rather than a passive frame, demonstrating only the beginning of the possibilities available for manipulating type to reflect language. Often graphic design can reveal cultural myths by using familiar symbols and styles in new ways, and Apollinaire does exactly that in this futurist, poetic, and exciting way.






Marinetti, another Futurist-classified poet, was a master in deconstruction — letting the words themselves build imagery both literally and figuratively; the letterforms and sentences themselves becoming the building blocks of his compositions. This 1913 work by Marinetti, Words of Liberty, is a perfect example of the theory of metalanguage, proposed by Roland Barthes. In his work, Elements of Semiology, he advanced the concept of the metalanguage — a systematized way of talking about concepts like meaning and grammar beyond the constraints of a traditional (first-order) language; in a metalanguage, symbols replace words and phrases. Insofar as one metalanguage is required for one explanation of first-order language, another may be required, so metalanguages may actually replace first-order languages. Barthes exposes how this structuralist system is regressive; orders of language rely upon a metalanguage by which it is explained, and therefore deconstruction itself is in danger of becoming a metalanguage, thus exposing all languages and discourse to scrutiny.


A work of design can be called “deconstruction” when it exposes and transforms the established rules of writing, interrupting the sacred “inside” of content with the profane “outside” of form. Weingart is the perfect example of this, using not only letterforms themselves but also nonobjective elements within his composition to distort the typographic content. Yet, the link between language and typography is so close that typography is, essentially, the frontier between languages and objects; languages and images. Typography turns language into a visible, tangible artifact, and in the process transforms it irrevocably.


While researching the link between the "inside" and "outside" form of content, George Orwell seemed to hold very similar views in his The Politics of English Language, speaking not of the link between typography and language but instead the written and spoken versions of English itself. Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble; and what trouble does this necessarily include? Protecting one’s writing from staleness of imagery, and of course lack of precision. Both are marked by vague writing or perhaps, in some cases, sheer incompetence of modern English prose, as well as the use of dying metaphors. He concludes for us that verbal false limbs and pretentious diction are the downfall for our mangled language, and we, the ambitious struggling writers of the world, can unite against its seemingly inevitable destruction.

But let us look closer at Orwell’s reasoning for a moment; that if thought corrupts language than surely language can also corrupt thought. Although written nearly 60 years before our time, he shares this ideal with a modern behemoth of writing – Stephen King. King has already imparted a great secret to us about the nature of writing – that ideas come from nowhere, and that vocabulary is one of the first steps toward a novel which actually functions as it should. One should not begin writing from the abstract, trying to dictate with impressive words or alliterative sentences; one should have an idea in mind and then set about trying to convey that idea to an audience. Vague writing only begets vague understanding, which is not the vehicle in which your novel should be riding. I personally feel that this is a powerful parallel to language and typography — that the designer should have in mind what exactly they are trying to communicate before beginning their design, instead of taking text copy and moving it around, trying to design without a firm message at hand. This eventually will end in a vague, incomprehensible and garbled communication, one which has no place in today's world; unless of course you happen to be a self-proclaimed Dada-ist.

The New Advertising

Key People and Events:

• Paul Rand – Understood value of invented forms for both symbolic and communicative ends, through skillful analysis of the context. Tempered systematic design for modern American design.
• Systematic design – how to run businesses. Graphic design was the means, but there was a new practice that emerged where the corporations took over the design.
• Besides branding products with promises, identity systems became the means of making complex organizations seem like a single entity with distinct personas.
• Branding was seen as a major way to shape a reputation for quality and reliability through “brand promise”. This became the idea that the reputation for quality was carried through every aspect through the design program, from the environment where the products were sold to the design of the letterheads.
• Simplicity enables the viewer to interpret the context immediately. The form and essence of a message – as well as playful symbolism.
• Bradbury Thompson – “All visual forms carry history”. Essentially he was opening a door for future designers to work in the vernacular, using the untrained artists as models for his design.
• Ivan Chermayeff & Tom Geismar - “Early Design Office”. They were against the idea that there should be no humor and curiosity and visual riddles, no hand of the artist. Their designs were technically a form of cubism. They saw it as a way not to be so driven by product but more by the process.
• Design was not a clinical activity, it could be gestural and fun also. Sculptural as well as communication vehicles.
• Vignelli Associates – Unigrid system. They developed the standards for format sizes, typography, grid systems, paper specifications, and colors. They also realized tremendous economies in material and time. Very outspoken in the field of graphic design, adopting the processes of engineers.
• Designers embraced the ahistorical universalism of the international style that preferred abstract form over figurative references.
• Corporate design sees its zenith with American design for a global marketplace in the 70s and 80s, which happens because the Corporate world appropriates all the avant garde and cutting-edge ideas. This sets the stage for what will become a backlash against corporate design -- something which is still seen today, where this anti-corporate strategy seems useful. The idea of Corporate design has been debunked as too impersonal; the hand of the artist, the humanist aspect, has been distilled out of it. These cold shapes and messages have little to do with the consumer and even confuses them – what is this Corporation and what are they doing behind closed doors?
• Television is a new media that is just being explored. Not only for advertisement but also as a branding media. To understand what happened to Modernism you have to understand that this brief period of Pop Art – just like Art Nouveau –was a bridge between two distinct styles, in this case the movements of Modernism and Postmodernism.
  
• No longer confined to a static image, pioneers of motion graphics used timing and sequence in tandem with graphic forms, typography, and photographic image.
• Saul Bass – Designed from motion pictures to design programs as well as famous corporate identities. Essentially developed a new cinematic language.
• Visual statements used simple images, talked intelligently to their audience, and focused on the benefits of a projduct. No longer just a photo of a product, the viewer had to dig down and see the big idea about what the company was or stood for.
• Conceptual strategies for typography were unified with photography by locking text or display tightly into the photographic image.
• George Lois' most innovative concepts grew from his ability to understand and respond to the people and events of his era. Staying in touch with his times was vital. He made a point to challenge, shock, and provoke the audience – even going as far as to undercut established values.
• Leo Burnett isolated individualism; an overriding theme of the 60s era, by creating myths and stereotypes. Message and image are inseparable within the layout. Opportunity and responsibility intermix – products of a complex system of representation. Lived experiences are replaced by symbolic expression of ideas.

The Search for a Universal Language

Key lecture points:

• The idea that was carried through De Stijl, and ultimately the Bauhaus, was that if you understood the basic elements of form, there must be a universal language. This search for a universal language actually focused in on a particular movemnt that is now pervasive throughout graphic design -- the origins of Information Design.
• Designers align with the notion of engineering - objective, rational, systematic, and programmatic. This becomes a belief system of values for a new post-war world that comes to rely on electronic information management.
• Rudolph Modley was one of the most distinguised pupils of Otto Neurath and is known for his large and comprehensive dictionaires and handbooks of symbols.
• The isotype sets the strategy for isotype design. From this point on, design systems become a pervasive metaphor for design -- the idea of systematic thinking. This came from Behrens, but it's precisely at this moment that you graphic design put its arms around this idea.
• Ladislay Sutnar (Czech) defined information design for a generation of designers at mid-century. He used bleeds extensively with a visual coding system of number, words, and rules. He layed out how someone should design for large catalog-like information; repetitive structures with subtle differences need a system of stripes and bars and other elements to create a structure which allows the complex information to be easily understood.
• Modernism and the NY School -- The flight from Hitler and Fascism created the greatest transitional migration of intellectual and creative talent in history.
• American design was reflected in its culture -- egalitarian with capitalistic attitudes and values. American design was pragmatic, intuitive, and informal.
• Lester Beal literally took on European Modernism and tried to do something with it. He used constructivist layouts and used American fonts -- because there were no modernist fonts. America wasn't interested in modernism so he was forced to use type from the nineteenth century.
• Paul Rand, unlike Beal, was very sophisticated and cultured; aware of exhibitions and, ultimately, traveled in the right circles. He got the right clients and lots of literary magazines allowed him to design a real new aesthetic for modernism -- the idea that it's not about pure form, it's the idea of message-making. "Smart" design; making the unfamiliar familiar.
• Alexey Brodovitch taught editorial designers how to use photography effectively, making it the dominant tool in editorial layout -- introducing techniques like full-bleed photoraphy, sans serif type, as well as white space and asymmetrical layouts.
• The International Style / Swiss Design. The origins of the Swiss grid was actually catalyzed by the need to set multiple languages in a document or book. Early Swiss design saw the designer as a conduit or facilitator for delivering important information with clarity and relevancy.

The idea of a universal language is so powerful; a true pictorial system which transcends the barriers created by different countries and dialects and even rivalries between nations to create a true and clearly understood language. McLuhan's idea of a "global village" is a wonderful one -- and its something which I believe is very close to being acheived, especially with the technologies available to the human race at this moment. If a universal language was ever perfected, we would no longer be held by the fear of visiting a different country simply because we cannot speak in their tongue -- because we could find what we need, when we need it, based on a system of comprehensible isotypes.

Post Cubism and Art Deco

Key lecture points:

• Art Deco was a period where the machines of war had transformed into the machines of transportation and communication.
• Spatial organization and synthetic imagery are the ideal.
• A.M. Cassandre (Russian) – Considered one of the great illustrators of 20th century who also had great typographic skills. Introduces the idea of a fictitious character that moves through experiences to sell the product.
• E. McKnight Kauffer (English) – an application of synthetic Cubist ideas. Edited complex images into interlocking planar shapes.
• Leisure class begins to be born during this period. America adopts the ideas of European Modernism as if they had invented it.
• Between the wars Germany became a cultural hub – German art absorbs Cubism and French advertising art, as well as the lettering, typography and spatial origination from the Russian Constructivism and Dutch De Stijl movements.
• Ludwig Hohlwien - leading Plakastil master. He Straddled the symbolic and illustrative while evolving with changing political and social events in Germany though as a result his career tarnished by collaborations with Nazis.
• Herbert Matter - Influenced by German Plakastil, Matter applies new approaches to photography started by Rodchenko, Moholy Nagy, and Tschichold. While most photography of the time was straightforward and neutral, Matter looked to the innovations of the Bauhaus and Nagy and the modernist approach to visual organization.
  

Guns, tanks, and bombs were the principal weapons of World War II, but there were other, more subtle forms of warfare as well. Words, posters, and films waged a constant battle for the hearts and minds of the American citizenry just as surely as military weapons engaged the enemy. Persuading the American public became a wartime industry, almost as important as the manufacturing of bullets and planes. The Government launched an aggressive propaganda campaign with clearly articulated goals and strategies to galvanize public support, and it recruited some of the nation's foremost intellectuals, artists, and filmmakers to wage the war on that front.

The development of modern Graphic Design, from which these propaganda posters played such a large part in, is fascinating, as is the enormous and influential contributions made by the Swiss. Herbert Matter, Swiss designer, linked graphic elements in unexpected ways – creating pictorial symbols by with the use of silhouetted photographs, common angles, micro and macro ideals, as well as overprinting and transparency.

From De Stijl to the Bauhaus and New Typography

De Stijl:

• Primary quality – idea that the drive for universal language of form had been narrowed down to a simple philosophy of horizontal and vertical forms -- shares the same goals as Malevich and the Suprematists.
  
• The universal laws of equilibrium and harmony in art could be a prototype for a new social order.
• Color is a structural element and not decorative or an afterthought, sans serif type favored.
  
• The design artifact was so pure, so new, and so functional; the point is that these things were not made to be used, but made to be looked at.
• Theo van Doesburg – founder and guiding force. Applied de Stijl principles to architecture, sculpture and typography.
• Piet Mondrian’s paintings adopts Malevich and the idea of pure form. Transformed himself from a Cubist to creating horizontal and vertical forms; balancing asymmetrical forms in space, and the meaning being subjective.

The idea of asymmetrical design of type and work, and how things are balanced through unequal equilibrium, is the recipe and playbook for future styles. This is the birth of the analytical system of graphic layout, especially with large amounts of type. Architecturally within de Stijl, buildings are formal and pure -- everything has been reduced to their basic form and cannot be pushed further. This is shown best by Rietveld's Schroeder House (1924), which looks much like a Rubik’s cube.


The Bauhaus (“To solve design problems created by industrialization.”) :

• Mechanism for spreading modernism through the world.
• Universal forms of design; transcend nationality and language, and thus everyone should be able to understand what is being communicated -- Little need for the unique.
• The Bauhaus was the first to tackle the challenge of the "first year experience" -- color, form, motion, and formal invention were all covered in a course, and all students were required to take it so they would understand the basics of design before they applied these basic principles in their later years.
• Moholy Nagy – single-handedly itemizes the applications of the components of the Bauhaus graphic design legacy. Creator of "Photoplastics" in which he experimented with light sources and transparency, as well as trying to figure out how to create movement within a static field.
• Advanced thinking on art theory, architecture, and design: Kandinsky, Klee, Gropius, Mondrian, Moholy Nagy, and van Doesburg were editors or authors in the series of the 14 books of the Bauhaus.
• Herbert Bayer - Architectonic forms establish a foundation for the practice of modern environmental graphics and exhibition design. Takes Bauhaus type and image in new direction – exhibition design and environmental graphics. Discovered that flush-left alignments are the most legible.

Organized after medieval “Bauhutte” apprentice system for Gothic Cathedrals, the Bauhaus was based on a community of master, journeyman, and apprentice; a hierarchy of advancement. No distinction was made between fine arts and applied arts, and nothing was nonsensical - everything was there to send a message or to solve a problem.


The New Typography

• Jan Tschichold was a true engima and thus very unique in the history of graphic design. He single-handedly came up with a way to talk about the strategies of design in a way that all countries could follow. His articulations on all the ideas of new typography were inserted in all printing houses in Europe and, later, America. His strong position on Modernism and New Typography was very interesting considering he later reversed his stance; eventually advocating freedom from modernist dogma. Hew literally began a revival in the 40s looking back past Modernism, and took on the challenge of designing many typefaces while looking at people like Garamond.
  
• The Dutch were masters of the New Typography. Designers in Holland demonstrated their implications of the New Typography as playful expressive forms plus dynamic, organized communication. It became a synthesis between playful DADA, Constructivism, tectonic strategies, and De Stijl’s structure organization for clear communication. Means and methods of commercial reproduction become tools of creativity.
• Paul Shoetema – used objective photography integrated into the total composition, then assembled it on the press bed. This style made uninteresting products and processes look exciting and dramatic for the consumer.
• Hendrick N. Werkman - Used very exploratory techniques; small presses to produce one of a kind compositions he called “druksels”.
• Piet Zwart – Father of modern corporate design who was completely self-taught. He used collage techniques with parts from the typecase and ordered words, rules, and symbols, and manipulated them to find the design. Self-proclaimed "typotecht."

The New Typography demonstrated dynamic interplays between asymmetrical typographic elements to form a field of tension and to lead the viewer through the space, calling attention to the important parts. Diverse elements unified into a design system consistently applied regardless of subject matter.

Discourse: Keedy's Zombie Modernism

Key concepts from Zombie Modernism:

• Design's modernism is an ill-considered version of art modernism, one that is based on an Enlightenment faith in progress and singular answers, reinforced by a rationalist universe.
• The core philosophy of modernist design is in instrumentalist, or pragmatic thought. It is goal-oriented, practical, and distrustful of all things metaphysical.
• Modernism is no longer a style, it's an ideology, and that ideology is conservatism.
• Meaning is arbitrary. Meaning is unstable and has to be made by the reader. Each reader will read differently.
• Art exists outside (above) society and is expected to be critical of it. Design exists inside (below) society and is expected to serve it.
• Postmodernism has been particularly important in acknowledging "the multiple forms of otherness as they emerge from differences in subjectivity, gender, and sexuality, race and class, temporal (configurations of sensibility) and spatial geographic locations and dislocations."
  

Here is one of the greatest examples of the rational-minded and pragmatic era of modernism - Paul Rand's IBM poster. There is absolutely nothing ambiguous about what it represents or what it could mean. Rand cleverly replaces letters with their phonographic counterparts - an I to an eye, a B to a bee - with a singular reasoning, making the audience believe they're participating in the design à la the Beggarstaffs. But the truth is that the metaphorical curtain closes on the audience before they can even manage to take their seats. And while it is at the forefront of design in its time, this sort of aged mentality - the modernist zombie - has no place in today's design world. The audience of today requires something immediately "I"-catching, something which will take attention and keep it, even from just a glance; and this Rand masterpiece of modernism, while beautiful in its simplicity, could never hold its own in today's postmodern world.




Another staple of modernist design is Lucien Bernhard, and as seen here, there is no mistaking what his poster (on the right) is about. Using the primary colors and simple geometric shapes to create images, Bernhard delivers to the audience a simple and straight-forward approach to a household item -- matches. Again on a plain black background like Rand, this poster displays all the key characteristics of modernism.




Rauschenberg hits all the postmodernist notes -- meaning within his work is entirely up to the reader, since to impose a single text or image on the reader is authoritarian and oppressive. Rauschenberg makes text visually ambiguous and difficult to fathom, as a way to respect the rights of the reader. It is as if his work is saying what any postmodernist wishes: to not look for a mythical modernist ideal, or pretend that art theory is a viable theoretical model for design; that we don't need to conserve our past and resist change. We need to construct our future theoretical discourse, carefully, around the particular and exciting context of design. We must allow ourselves to look at design in new and challenging ways, we must look for... ourselves.

It is clear that, staring into any of his postmodern collages, the reader will find a different meaning than any other person, and will prescribe their own theories on what it may represent or what it sort of statement it makes, but the underlying idea under all of this is simply that in these days, the only modernists are the living dead -- zombies trying to feed off a postmodern world. Where's Shaun of the Design when you need him?

The Avant Garde Trio: Suprematism, Constructivism, De Stijl

Around 1915, Kasimir Malevich devised a style called Suprematism, which proved to have a lasting impact on Russian graphic design, as well as the future of modern graphic design. Malevich’s Suprematist paintings carried Cubist abstraction to its logical extreme, consisting of colorful squares and rectangles that appear to float in an infinite space. The blocks of color are unmodulated, the compositional structures often diagonal and suggestive of dynamic movement. This is reductive geometric abstraction par excellence; Malevich desired to invent a new universal language with strong parallels to the later work of De Stijl in the Netherlands. Like the mature works of De Stijl artists, Suprematist compositions are entirely non-objective, meaning they bear no representational relationship to the natural world. Malevich christened his work Suprematism in reference to “the supremacy of pure feeling in creative art.” Malevich was optimistic that his work was a perfect fit for the new society that was arising after the Russian Revolution.

For many Russian designers and intellectuals after the First World War and the Russian Revolution, the newly founded Soviet Union obliged them to originate new artistic styles for their new, utopian society. Perhaps the most influential group of artists who tried to serve the state was the Constructivists, a group of artists who based their aesthetic on the pioneering sculpture of Vladimir Tatlin.

• Constructivism as an active force lasted until around 1934, having a great deal of effect on developments in the art of the Weimar Republic and elsewhere, before being replaced by Socialist Realism. Its motifs have sporadically recurred in other art movements since.
  
• The First Working Group of Constructivists (including Liubov Popova, Alexander Vesnin, Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova, and the theorists Alexei Gan, Boris Arvatov and Osip Brik) would arrive at a definition of Constructivism as the combination of faktura: the particular material properties of the object, and tektonika, its spatial presence.
• In general, De Stijl proposed ultimate simplicity and abstraction, both in architecture and painting, by using only straight horizontal and vertical lines and rectangular forms.
  
• The formal vocabulary was limited to the primary colours, red, yellow, and blue, and the three primary values, black, white, and grey.
• Piet Mondrian (Dutch) was the group's leading figure. He published a manifesto titled Neo-Plasticism in 1920.
  
• Painter Theo van Doesberg had started a journal named De Stijl in 1917, which continued publication until 1928, spreading the theories of the group, which also included the painter George Vantongerloo, along with the architects Jacobus Johannes P. Oud and Gerrit Rietveld. Their work exerted tremendous influence on the Bauhaus and the International Style.
  

Rise of the Ism's

"It could be said that the fusion of Cubis painting and Futurist poetry spawned 20th century Graphic Design." -- Meggs.

Much like Behrens, self-taught designer Lucian Bernhard set the ground work for distinct professional identity for graphic design -- tying closely with the focus of modernist pictorial graphics which became developments enduring as major concerns of the 20th century:

• Graphic simplification
• Integration of word and image
• Symbolic concerns of Synthetic Cubism
  

DADA and the Futurist developed during the advent of the World War; the former a reaction in the style of "anti-style" -- (a sort of response to the world saying that if all this death and destruction are going on in our world, then how could there be art? How could there be style or beauty in anything while the meaningless loss of life continues?) and the latter being actually in favor of war -- it voiced enthusiasm for danger and the machine age, called for the destruction of libraries and museums to fight against moralism, feminism, and utilitarian cowardice. But the importance of these two movements are enormous -- they are the catalyst for all the modern movements in the early decades of the 20th century, including Avant-Garde, Cubism, Surrealism, and Automatism.

The leaders of this significant era who are important to remember:

• Ferdinand de Saussure (Structural Linguistics)
• Stephane Mallarme
• Filippo Marinetti
• Ludwig Hohlwien
• Picasso
• Giacomo Balla
• Tristan Tzara
• Voltaire
• Duchamp
• John Heartfield
• George Grosz
• Kurt Schwitters
• Max Ernst
• Rene Magritte
• Man Ray
  

Era of Art Nouveau

The overarching theme of lecture, for me, was the importance of Art Nouveau in the evolution of Graphic Design. The Beggarstaffs were particulary significant, especially with their Gestalt ideas of closure using “meaningful incompleteness” -- an incomplete image which challenged the viewer to participate by deciphering the subject.

Sharp silhouettes, and high contrast were the new vocabulary of form for the graphic artist. There was also the idea of the introduction of duality and plurality and the idea that in art you make shapes, but must also make a message. It was the very beginning of the reduction of iconicity -- cutting down subjects to the bare essentials, something which is in heavy use today.

Other important topics relating to the ideals introduced by Art Nouveau are:

• Ornament as Structure
• Historicism (use of past forms and styles to express the present intead of inventing new ones)
• Japanese design and Ukiyo-e woodblock prints and their influence (stylized form, the idea of artificial perspective and the distortion of forms --- basically the beginning of the poster)
• Aubrey Beardsley's introduction of dramatic interplay between positive and negative shape and the blurring of society's conventions of what should and shouldn't be allowed
• Jugendstil and Sezesionstil
• Gesamkunstwerk - to encompass every possible type of aesthetic expression.
• The idea that modernism is conveyed through students of different academies.
  
• Peter Behrens and the “New Objectivity”

Ephemera

Some things which stood out in particular during the lecture that were of interest to me included the beginning of the use of scale, the Victorian period's ideals (where trends are fickle and most everything is influenced by Queen Victoria herself), and how mass-production snuffed out true design and nearly killed the design of books. It's interesting to think that scale as we understand and use it today first began with posters in the streets of England, where advertising played such a large role in everyday affairs. The progression to such enormous, attention-grabbing signs such as billboards is one which, these days, is not seen too often anymore --- what with this digital age, all the communication designers try to get across are dealing with "new media", using the internet and its interactivity to reach people across the entire globe.

The Victorian Period expressed a new consciousness of the industrial era’s large middle class – their spirit, culture, and the moral standards. Queen Victoria controlled the whole fashion statement for women, much like the trends of today are affected by fashion, even though they're extremely temporary; ephemera.

Mass-produced books were of appalling quality – excessive ornamentation, sensational novelty. Type design and book design became casualties of novel graphic expressions for commercial consumption, which I'm glad to see is no longer the case in the modern world -- or at least not in this generation. Agencies and Publishing Houses take great care in the advertisement of books and with their design, lest they be overlooked and create a loss in revenue.

Typography Through the Ages

Man drew before he could write, and when he could write, he could form civilizations. The very structure of the alphabet and of letterforms as we know it, taken from the Romans (who stole it from the Greeks, who were inspired by the Etruscans) is based on four strokes – horizontal, vertical, diagonal, and curved. Understanding letterforms and their history influences decisions made in typography, allowing us to communicate ideas with both legibility and aesthetically pleasing design. The evolution of typography is exceptional -- from pictograms to Egyptian hieroglyphics to the geometric structure and order that the Greeks applied to the cockeyed Phoenician characters, the known alphabet became art forms of great harmony and beauty. And though the West cannot claim it, the invention of printing was one of the most important breakthroughs in human history. Romans were the first to give care to both forms as well as counterforms - something which designers of this day and age still adhere to. The Illuminated Manuscripts gave the world a vast vocabulary of graphic forms, page layouts, illustration and letter styles as well as techniques; it was a wealth of information which designers in this age base all of their designs upon.

In a brief fast-forward of history, the coming of the Sun King, Louis XIV of France, also came with the invention of Transitional typography, which was a more scientific and rational structural basis for letterforms, instead of the more calligraphic blackletterforms of Gothic design. With the Roman du Roi (the king's alphabet) eventually emerged Modern typography due to designers like Bodoni . The Renaissance itself saw the rise of antiquity and of humanism, and this affected both modern thought as well as design. Designers began looking back toward the basics of typography and of the Roman letterform - shedding the ideals of Gothic blockletter type - into the very letters and alphabet that we use today. The understanding of these concepts - of the history of language and creation of the alphabet - is significant in modern design; if you cannot grasp the history of type, then you can't see it's future. The use of Roman letterforms in twenty-first century design is unsurpassed in both print and in digital use. When we, as designers, can comprehend the very building blocks of typography, we can manipulate them with more ease, and can use their base as a platform to exapand and create new letterforms and fonts, even as the tools of typography continue to evolve.